Shinbutsu-Shūgō (神仏習合) or Shinbutsu-Konkō (神仏混交) is the Japanese term for the blending of Shinto and Buddhism, which was the main form of religion in Japan until the Meiji period.
It refers to the interaction of the native Japanese beliefs and practices with the imported Buddhist teachings and rituals, and the lack of clear distinction and separation between them.
This article will summarize the history and characteristics of this syncretism, as well as some of the Shinto schools that emerged from it.
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Before the introduction of Buddhism (before 552)
There is little historical evidence about the religious rites in Japan before the encounter with Buddhism, since the Japanese adopted the Chinese writing system at the same time as Buddhism.
The only clues come from some passages in Chinese historical works, such as the Weizhi from 297.
Asuka period (552–710)
Buddhism was introduced from China via Korea in the 6th century, and the Japanese tried to reconcile it with their existing beliefs, assuming both were true.
The political structure of Japan also changed from a loose federation of clans to a centralized state modeled after China, with a capital, a bureaucracy, and a single ruler (the Tennō).
The new state incorporated Buddhism and other Chinese philosophies, such as Confucianism, into its foundation.
For example, the construction of jingūji (神宮寺; "shrine-temples") that housed both kami and buddhas was financially supported by the rulers.
However, there was also some ambivalence and resistance to Buddhism, especially from the powerful clans that controlled the Ise-jingū, the central site of imperial ancestor worship, where Buddhism was taboo.
Nara period (710–794)
The Nara period saw the establishment of a permanent capital in Nara and the flourishing of Buddhist culture.
The state-sponsored the construction of large temples and monasteries, such as Tōdai-ji and Kōfuku-ji, and imported Buddhist scriptures and statues from China.
The Buddhist clergy gained political influence and wealth, but also faced criticism and persecution from some emperors who feared their power.
The interaction between Shinto and Buddhism continued, as some kami were identified with buddhas or bodhisattvas, such as Hachiman with Amitābha or Benzaiten with Sarasvatī.
Some Buddhist schools also developed their own theories of kami-buddha correspondence, such as Kegon and Hosso.
Heian period (794–1185)
The Heian period marked the peak of Shinbutsu-Shūgō, as new forms of Buddhism were introduced from China, such as Tendai and Shingon, which emphasized esoteric teachings and rituals.
The imperial court moved to Kyoto and developed a refined aristocratic culture that patronized Buddhism.
The kami were regarded as manifestations or protectors of buddhas or bodhisattvas, and many shrines were built within or near temples.
Some famous examples are Kasuga Taisha within Kōfuku-ji, Itsukushima Shrine near Daigan-ji, and Iwashimizu Hachiman-gū near Shōmyō-ji.
Kami as manifest buddhas and bodhisattvas
One of the most influential theories of Shinbutsu-Shūgō was Ryōbu Shintō (両部神道; "dual aspect Shinto"), which was based on Shingon esoteric teachings.
It claimed that all kami were expressions of two fundamental cosmic principles: Dainichi Nyorai (大日如来; Mahāvairocana), the universal Buddha who represents ultimate reality; and Kongōkai (金剛界; Vajradhātu), the realm of wisdom; or Taizōkai (胎蔵界; Garbhakośadhātu), the realm of compassion.
According to this theory, Amaterasu Ōmikami (天照大御神), the sun goddess and ancestral deity of the imperial family, was identified with Dainichi Nyorai in Kongōkai; while Ōkuninushi no Mikoto (大国主命), the earth god and ruler of Izumo province, was identified with Dainichi Nyorai in Taizōkai.
These two kami were also associated with two mandalas that represented Kongōkai and Taizōkai respectively: Kongōkai Mandara (金剛界曼荼羅) and Taizōkai Mandara (胎蔵界曼荼羅).
These mandalas were often displayed in shrines and temples and used for rituals and meditation.
Kamakura period (1185–1333)
The Kamakura period witnessed the rise of new forms of Buddhism that appealed to the common people, such as Pure Land, Zen, and Nichiren.
These schools challenged the authority and orthodoxy of the established temples and monasteries and sometimes clashed with the military government that ruled Japan.
The interaction between Shinto and Buddhism continued but with some changes.
Some kami were revered as independent deities, rather than manifestations of buddhas or bodhisattvas, such as Hachiman, who was worshiped as the god of war and patron of the Minamoto clan.
Some Buddhist schools also developed their own theories of Shinbutsu-Shūgō, such as Sannō Shintō (山王神道; "mountain king Shinto"), which was based on Tendai teachings.
It claimed that Sannō Gongen (山王権現), the avatar of Hie Shrine on Mount Hiei, was the supreme deity who encompassed all kami and buddhas and was identified with Shakyamuni Buddha and Dainichi Nyorai.
Muromachi period (1333–1568) and Azuchi-Momoyama period (1568–1603)
The Muromachi period was characterized by political instability and civil wars, as well as cultural innovations and developments.
The Ashikaga shogunate supported Zen Buddhism, which influenced art, literature, and philosophy.
The emergence of warring states (Sengoku) led to the proliferation of new religious movements and sects, such as Ikkō-ikki (一向一揆; "single-minded uprising"), a militant faction of Pure Land followers; or Jōdo Shinshū (浄土真宗; "true Pure Land school"), the main Pure Land sect in Japan, which renounced kami worship due to the notion that kami were inferior to buddhas.
The interaction between Shinto and Buddhism continued but with some variations.
Some shrines were independent from temples, such as Ise-jingū or Izumo-taisha; while some temples incorporated shrines within their complex, such as Enryaku-ji or Kiyomizu-dera.
Some new theories of Shinbutsu-Shūgō also emerged, such as Yoshida Shintō (吉田神道; "Yoshida Shinto"), which was based on esoteric teachings.
It claimed that all kami and buddhas originated from a single source: Amaterasu Ōmikami.
The Azuchi-Momoyama period saw the unification of Japan under the rule of Oda Nobunaga, Toyotomi Hideyoshi, and Tokugawa Ieyasu.
These warlords patronized different forms of Buddhism, such as Nichiren, Zen, or Pure Land.
They also faced the challenge of Christianity, which was introduced by Portuguese missionaries in 1549.
Christianity was initially tolerated but later banned and persecuted due to its perceived threat to the social order and the native religion.
The interaction between Shinto and Buddhism continued but with some conflicts.
Some Buddhist schools tried to assimilate Christian elements into their teachings, such as Honji suijaku (本地垂迹; "original ground and manifest traces"), which claimed that Christian saints were manifestations of buddhas or bodhisattvas.
Some Shinto schools tried to distinguish themselves from Buddhism, such as Watarai Shintō (度会神道; "Watarai Shinto"), which emphasized the purity and superiority of kami over buddhas.
Edo period (1603–1868)
The Edo period was a long era of peace and stability under the rule of the Tokugawa shogunate.
The shogunate enforced a strict policy of isolationism from foreign influences, except for limited trade with China, Korea, and the Netherlands.
The shogunate also regulated religion, requiring all Japanese to register at a Buddhist temple and banning Christianity.
The interaction between Shinto and Buddhism continued but with some developments.
Some shrines became more influential and powerful, such as Ise-jingū or Nikkō Tōshō-gū; while some temples became more popular and accessible, such as Senso-ji or Kinkaku-ji.
Some new theories of Shinbutsu-Shūgō also emerged, such as Suika Shintō (水火神道; "water-fire Shinto"), which was based on Confucian teachings.
It claimed that all kami and buddhas were manifestations of two cosmic forces: sui (水; water), which represented yin , female, passive, dark; and ka (火; fire), which represented yang , male, active.
Conclusion
Shinbutsu-Shūgō, the syncretism of Shintō and Buddhism, profoundly shaped the religious landscape of Japan.
The integration of Buddhist figures and beliefs with indigenous Kami blurred the boundaries between the two religions for centuries.
The syncretic practices of Shinbutsu-Shūgō provided a unique cultural and religious context for the development of Japanese spirituality.
Despite historical changes and conflicts, the syncretism of Shintō and Buddhism remains a significant aspect of Japan's religious heritage.
Through the centuries, Shinbutsu-Shūgō has demonstrated the adaptability and resilience of Japanese religious traditions, blending diverse influences into a cohesive spiritual framework.
The rich history of syncretism between Shintō and Buddhism continues to shape contemporary religious practices in Japan, highlighting the country's vibrant religious tapestry.